American Academy of Pediatrics

Policy Statement

Organizational Principles to Guide and Define the Child Health Care System and/or Improve the Health of All Children

Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk

האקדמיה האמריקנית לרפואת ילדים

הצהרת מדיניות

עקרונות ארגוניים להנחיה והגדרה של מערכת הבריאות לילדים ו/או לשיפור הבריאות של כל הילדים

חטיבת ההנקה

REFERENCES

[1] Kramer MS, Chalmers B, Hodnett ED, et al. Promotion of Breastfeeding Intervention Trial (PROBIT): a randomized trial in the Republic of Belarus. JAMA. 2001;285 :413 –420

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Work Group on Breastfeeding. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics. 1997;100 :1035 –1039

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Medical Home Initiatives for Children With Special Needs Project Advisory Committee. The medical home. Pediatrics. 2002;110 :184 –186

[1] US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2010: Conference Edition—Volumes I and II. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health; 2000:47–48

[1] US Department of Health and Human Services. HHS Blueprint for Action on Breastfeeding. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Office on Women's Health; 2000

[1] United States Breastfeeding Committee. Breastfeeding in the United States: A National Agenda. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Maternal and Child Health Bureau; 2001

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics. New Mother's Guide to Breastfeeding. Meek JY, ed. New York, NY: Bantam Books; 2002

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Guidelines for Perinatal Care. Gilstrap LC, Oh W, eds. 5th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2002

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition. Pediatric Nutrition Handbook. Kleinman RE, ed. 5th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2004

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Pickering LK, ed. 26th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Environmental Health. Handbook of Pediatric Environmental Health. Etzel RA, Balk SJ, eds. 2nd ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003

[1] Hambraeus L, Forsum E, Lönnerdal B. Nutritional aspects of breast milk and cow's milk formulas. In: Hambraeus L, Hanson L, MacFarlane H, eds. Symposium on Food and Immunology. Stockholm, Sweden: Almqvist and Wiksell; 1975

[1] Schanler RJ. The use of human milk for premature infants. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001;48 :207 –219

[1] Lucas A, Morley R, Cole TJ. Randomised trial of early diet in preterm babies and later intelligence quotient. BMJ. 1998;317 :1481 –1487

[1] Horwood LJ, Darlow BA, Mogridge N. Breast milk feeding and cognitive ability at 7–8 years. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2001;84 :F23 –F27

[1]Amin SB, Merle KS, Orlando MS, Dalzell LE, Guillet R. Brainstem maturation in premature infants as a function of enteral feeding type. Pediatrics. 2000;106 :318 –322

[1] Hylander MA, Strobino DM, Dhanireddy R. Human milk feedings and infection among very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics. 1998;102(3) . Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/102/3/e38

[1] Hylander MA, Strobino DM, Pezzullo JC, Dhanireddy R. Association of human milk feedings with a reduction in retinopathy of prematurity among very low birthweight infants. J Perinatol. 2001;21 :356 –362

[1] Singhal A, Farooqi IS, O'Rahilly S, Cole TJ, Fewtrell M, Lucas A. Early nutrition and leptin concentrations in later life. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;75 :993 –999

[1] Schanler RJ, Shulman RJ, Lau C. Feeding strategies for premature infants: beneficial outcomes of feeding fortified human milk versus preterm formula. Pediatrics. 1999;103 :1150 –1157

[1] Lucas A, Cole TJ. Breast milk and neonatal necrotising enterocolitis. Lancet. 1990;336 :1519 –1523

[1] Blaymore Bier J, Oliver T, Ferguson A, Vohr BR. Human milk reduces outpatient upper respiratory symptoms in premature infants during their first year of life. J Perinatol. 2002;22 :354 –359

[1] Heinig MJ. Host defense benefits of breastfeeding for the infant. Effect of breastfeeding duration and exclusivity. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001;48 :105 –123, ix

[1] Cochi SL, Fleming DW, Hightower AW, et al. Primary invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease: a population-based assessment of risk factors. J Pediatr. 1986;108 :887 –896

[1] Istre GR, Conner JS, Broome CV, Hightower A, Hopkins RS. Risk factors for primary invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease: increased risk from day care attendance and school-aged household members. J Pediatr. 1985;106 :190 –195

[1] Takala AK, Eskola J, Palmgren J, et al. Risk factors of invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease among children in Finland. J Pediatr. 1989;115 :694 –701

[1] Dewey KG, Heinig MJ, Nommsen-Rivers LA. Differences in morbidity between breast-fed and formula-fed infants. J Pediatr. 1995;126 :696 –702

[1] Howie PW, Forsyth JS, Ogston SA, Clark A, Florey CD. Protective effect of breast feeding against infection. BMJ. 1990;300 :11 –16

[1] Kramer MS, Guo T, Platt RW, et al. Infant growth and health outcomes associated with 3 compared with 6 mo of exclusive breastfeeding. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78 :291 –295

[1] Popkin BM, Adair L, Akin JS, Black R, Briscoe J, Flieger W. Breast-feeding and diarrheal morbidity. Pediatrics. 1990;86 :874 –882

[1] Beaudry M, Dufour R, Marcoux S. Relation between infant feeding and infections during the first six months of life. J Pediatr. 1995;126 :191 –197

[1] Bhandari N, Bahl R, Mazumdar S, Martines J, Black RE, Bhan MK. Effect of community-based promotion of exclusive breastfeeding on diarrhoeal illness and growth: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Infant Feeding Study Group. Lancet. 2003;361 :1418 –1423

[1] Lopez-Alarcon M, Villalpando S, Fajardo A. Breast-feeding lowers the frequency and duration of acute respiratory infection and diarrhea in infants under six months of age. J Nutr. 1997;127 :436 –443

[1] Bachrach VR, Schwarz E, Bachrach LR. Breastfeeding and the risk of hospitalization for respiratory disease in infancy: a meta-analysis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157 :237 –243 

[1] Oddy WH, Sly PD, de Klerk NH, et al. Breast feeding and respiratory morbidity in infancy: a birth cohort study. Arch Dis Child. 2003;88 :224 –228

[1] Chulada PC, Arbes SJ Jr, Dunson D, Zeldin DC. Breast-feeding and the prevalence of asthma and wheeze in children: analyses from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111 :328 –336

[1] Oddy WH, Peat JK, de Klerk NH. Maternal asthma, infant feeding, and the risk of asthma in childhood. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;110 :65 –67

[1] Gdalevich M, Mimouni D, Mimouni M. Breast-feeding and the risk of bronchial asthma in childhood: a systematic review with meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Pediatr. 2001;139 :261 –266

[1] Oddy WH, Holt PG, Sly PD, et al. Association between breast feeding and asthma in 6 year old children: findings of a prospective birth cohort study. BMJ. 1999;319 :815 –819

[1] Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Taussig LM, Martinez FD. Relationship of infant feeding to recurrent wheezing at age 6 years. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1995;149 :758 –763

[1] Saarinen UM. Prolonged breast feeding as prophylaxis for recurrent otitis media. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1982;71 :567 –571

[1] Duncan B, Ey J, Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD, Taussig LM. Exclusive breast-feeding for at least 4 months protects against otitis media. Pediatrics. 1993;91 :867 –872

[1]Owen MJ, Baldwin CD, Swank PR, Pannu AK, Johnson DL, Howie VM. Relation of infant feeding practices, cigarette smoke exposure, and group child care to the onset and duration of otitis media with effusion in the first two years of life. J Pediatr. 1993;123 :702 –711

[1] Paradise JL, Elster BA, Tan L. Evidence in infants with cleft palate that breast milk protects against otitis media. Pediatrics. 1994;94 :853 –860 

[1] Aniansson G, Alm B, Andersson B, et al. A prospective cohort study on breast-feeding and otitis media in Swedish infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1994;13 :183 –188

[1] Pisacane A, Graziano L, Mazzarella G, Scarpellino B, Zona G. Breast-feeding and urinary tract infection. J Pediatr. 1992;120 :87 –89

[1] Marild S, Hansson S, Jodal U, Oden A, Svedberg K. Protective effect of breastfeeding against urinary tract infection. Acta Paediatr. 2004;93 :164 –168

[1] Chen A, Rogan WJ. Breastfeeding and the risk of postneonatal death in the United States. Pediatrics. 2004;113(5) . Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/113/5/e435

[1]  Horne RS, Parslow PM, Ferens D, Watts AM, Adamson TM. Comparison of evoked arousability in breast and formula fed infants. Arch Dis Child. 2004;89 (1):22 –25

[1] Ford RPK, Taylor BJ, Mitchell EA, et al. Breastfeeding and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome. Int J Epidemiol. 1993;22 :885 –890

[1] Mitchell EA, Taylor BJ, Ford RPK, et al. Four modifiable and other major risk factors for cot death: the New Zealand study. J Paediatr Child Health. 1992;28(suppl 1) :S3 –S8

[1] Scragg LK, Mitchell EA, Tonkin SL, Hassall IB. Evaluation of the cot death prevention programme in South Auckland. N Z Med J. 1993;106 :8 –10

[1] Alm B, Wennergren G, Norvenius SG, et al. Breast feeding and the sudden infant death syndrome in Scandinavia, 1992–95. Arch Dis Child. 2002;86 :400 –402

[1] McVea KL, Turner PD, Peppler DK. The role of breastfeeding in sudden infant death syndrome. J Hum Lact. 2000;16 :13 –20

[1] Mosko S, Richard C, McKenna J. Infant arousals during mother-infant bed sharing: implications for infant sleep and sudden infant death syndrome research. Pediatrics. 1997;100 :841 –849

[1] Gerstein HC. Cow's milk exposure and type 1 diabetes mellitus. A critical overview of the clinical literature. Diabetes Care. 1994;17 :13 –19

[1] Kostraba JN, Cruickshanks KJ, Lawler-Heavner J, et al. Early exposure to cow's milk and solid foods in infancy, genetic predisposition, and the risk of IDDM. Diabetes. 1993;42 :288 –295

[1] Pettit DJ, Forman MR, Hanson RL, Knowler WC, Bennett PH. Breastfeeding and the incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Pima Indians. Lancet. 1997;350 :166 –168

[1] Perez-Bravo E, Carrasco E, Guitierrez-Lopez MD, Martinez MT, Lopez G, de los Rios MG. Genetic predisposition and environmental factors leading to the development of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Chilean children. J Mol Med. 1996;74 :105 –109

[1] Davis MK. Review of the evidence for an association between infant feeding and childhood cancer. Int J Cancer Suppl. 1998;11 :29 –33

[1] Smulevich VB, Solionova LG, Belyakova SV. Parental occupation and other factors and cancer risk in children: I. Study methodology and non-occupational factors. Int J Cancer. 1999;83 :712 –717

[1] Bener A, Denic S, Galadari S. Longer breast-feeding and protection against childhood leukaemia and lymphomas. Eur J Cancer. 2001;37 :234 –238

[1] Armstrong J, Reilly JJ, Child Health Information Team. Breastfeeding and lowering the risk of childhood obesity. Lancet. 2002;359 :2003 –2004

[1] Dewey KG, Heinig MJ, Nommsen LA, Peerson JM, Lonnerdal B. Breast-fed infants are leaner than formula-fed infants at 1 year of age: the DARLING study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993;57 :140 –145

[1] Arenz S, Ruckerl R, Koletzko B, Von Kries R. Breast-feeding and childhood obesity—a systematic review. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004;28 :1247 –1256

[1] Grummer-Strawn LM, Mei Z. Does breastfeeding protect against pediatric overweight? Analysis of longitudinal data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Pediatric Nutrition Surveillance System. Pediatrics. 2004;113(2) . Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/113/2/e81

[1] Stettler N, Zemel BS, Kumanyika S, Stallings VA. Infant weight gain and childhood overweight status in a multicenter, cohort study. Pediatrics. 2002;109 :194 –199

[1] Gillman MW, Rifas-Shiman SL, Camargo CA, et al. Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants. JAMA. 2001;285 :2461 –2467

[1] Toschke AM, Vignerova J, Lhotska L, Osancova K, Koletzko B, von Kries R. Overweight and obesity in 6- to 14-year old Czech children in 1991: protective effect of breast-feeding. J Pediatr. 2002;141 :764 –769

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition. Prevention of pediatric overweight and obesity. Pediatrics. 2003;112 :424 –430

[1] Owen CG, Whincup PH, Odoki K, Gilg JA, Cook DG. Infant feeding and blood cholesterol: a study in adolescents and a systematic review. Pediatrics. 2002;110 :597 –608

[1] Horwood LJ, Fergusson DM. Breastfeeding and later cognitive and academic outcomes. Pediatrics. 1998;101(1) . Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/101/1/e9

[1] Anderson JW, Johnstone BM, Remley DT. Breast-feeding and cognitive development: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;70 :525 –535

[1] Jacobson SW, Chiodo LM, Jacobson JL. Breastfeeding effects on intelligence quotient in 4- and 11-year-old children. Pediatrics. 1999;103(5) . Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/103/5/e71

[1] Reynolds A. Breastfeeding and brain development. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001;48 :159 –171

[1] Mortensen EL, Michaelsen KF, Sanders SA, Reinisch JM. The association between duration of breastfeeding and adult intelligence. JAMA. 2002;287 :2365 –2371

[1] Batstra L, Neeleman, Hadders-Algra M. Can breast feeding modify the adverse effects of smoking during pregnancy on the child's cognitive development? J Epidemiol Community Health. 2003;57 :403 –404

[1] Rao MR, Hediger ML, Levine RJ, Naficy AB, Vik T. Effect of breastfeeding on cognitive development of infants born small for gestational age. Acta Paediatr. 2002;91 :267 –274

[1] Bier JA, Oliver T, Ferguson AE, Vohr BR. Human milk improves cognitive and motor development of premature infants during infancy. J Hum Lact. 2002;18 :361 –367

[1] Feldman R, Eidelman AI. Direct and indirect effects of breast-milk on the neurobehavioral and cognitive development of premature infants. Dev Psychobiol. 2003;43 :109 –119

[1] Gray L, Miller LW, Phillip BL, Blass EM. Breastfeeding is analgesic in healthy newborns. Pediatrics. 2002;109 :590 –593

[1] Carbajal R, Veerapen S, Couderc S, Jugie M, Ville Y. Analgesic effect of breast feeding in term neonates: randomized controlled trial. BMJ. 2003;326 :13

[1] Labbok MH. Effects of breastfeeding on the mother. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001;48 :143 –158

[1] Chua S, Arulkumaran S, Lim I, Selamat N, Ratnam SS. Influence of breastfeeding and nipple stimulation on postpartum uterine activity. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1994;101 :804 –805

[1] Kennedy KI, Labbok MH, Van Look PF. Lactational amenorrhea method for family planning. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1996;54 :55 –57

[1] Dewey KG, Heinig MJ, Nommsen LA. Maternal weight-loss patterns during prolonged lactation. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993;58 :162 –166

[1] Newcomb PA, Storer BE, Longnecker MP, et al. Lactation and a reduced risk of premenopausal breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 1994;330 :81 –87

[1] Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and breastfeeding: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 47 epidemiological studies in 30 countries, including 50302 women with breast cancer and 96973 women without the disease. Lancet. 2002;360 :187 –195

[1] Lee SY, Kim MT, Kim SW, Song MS, Yoon SJ. Effect of lifetime lactation on breast cancer risk: a Korean women's cohort study. Int J Cancer. 2003;105 :390 –393

[1] Tryggvadottir L, Tulinius H, Eyfjord JE, Sigurvinsson T. Breastfeeding and reduced risk of breast cancer in an Icelandic cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;154 :37 –42

[1] Enger SM, Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Bernstein L. Breastfeeding experience and breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1998;7 :365 –369

[1] Jernstrom H, Lubinski J, Lynch HT, et al. Breast-feeding and the risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2004;96 :1094 –1098

[1] Rosenblatt KA, Thomas DB. Lactation and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid contraceptives. Int J Epidemiol. 1993;22 :192 –197

[1] Cumming RG, Klineberg RJ. Breastfeeding and other reproductive factors and the risk of hip fractures in elderly women. Int J Epidemiol. 1993;22 :684 –691

[1] Lopez JM, Gonzalez G, Reyes V, Campino C, Diaz S. Bone turnover and density in healthy women during breastfeeding and after weaning. Osteoporos Int. 1996;6 :153 –159

[1] Paton LM, Alexander JL, Nowson CA, et al. Pregnancy and lactation have no long-term deleterious effect on measures of bone mineral in healthy women: a twin study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;77 :707 –714

[1] Weimer J. The Economic Benefits of Breast Feeding: A Review and Analysis. Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Report No. 13. Washington, DC: Food and Rural Economics Division, Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture; 2001

[1] Ball TM, Wright AL. Health care cost of formula-feeding in the first year of life. Pediatrics. 1999;103 :870 –876

[1] Tuttle CR, Dewey KG. Potential cost savings for Medi-Cal, AFDC, food stamps, and WIC programs associated with increasing breast-feeding among low-income Hmong women in California. J Am Diet Assoc. 1996;96 :885 –890

[1] Cohen R, Mrtek MB, Mrtek RG. Comparison of maternal absenteeism and infant illness rates among breast-feeding and formula-feeding women in two corporations. Am J Health Promot. 1995;10 :148 –153

[1] Jarosz LA. Breast-feeding versus formula: cost comparison. Hawaii Med J. 1993;52 :14 –18

[1] Levine RE, Huffman SL, Center to Prevent Childhood Malnutrition. The Economic Value of Breastfeeding, the National, Public Sector, Hospital and Household Levels: A Review of the Literature. Washington, DC: Social Sector Analysis Project, Agency for International Development; 1990

[1] Chen Y-T. Defects in galactose metabolism. In: Behrman RE, Kliegman RM, Jenson HB, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 16th ed. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders; 2000:413 –414

[1] Ando Y, Saito K, Nakano S, et al. Bottle-feeding can prevent transmission of HTLV-I from mothers to their babies. J Infect. 1989;19 :25 –29

[1] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and USPHS Working Group. Guidelines for counseling persons infected with human T-lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-1) and type II (HTLV-II). Ann Intern Med. 1993;118 :448 –454

[1] Gori G, Cama G, Guerresi E, et al. Radioactivity in breastmilk and placenta after Chernobyl accident [letter]. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988;158 :1243 –1244

[1] Robinson PS, Barker P, Campbell A, Henson P, Surveyor I, Young PR. Iodine-131 in breast milk following therapy for thyroid carcinoma. J Nucl Med. 1994;35 :1797 –1801

[1] Bakheet SM, Hammami MM. Patterns of radioiodine uptake by the lactating breast. Eur J Nucl Med. 1994;21 :604 –608

[1] Egan PC, Costanza ME, Dodion P, Egorin MJ, Bachur NR. Doxorubicin and cisplatin excretion into human milk. Cancer Treat Rep. 1985;69 :1387 –1389

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Drugs. Transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics. 2001;108 :776 –789

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics. Transmission of infectious agents via human milk. In: Pickering LK, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 26th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003:118 –121

[1] Read JS; American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric AIDS. Human milk, breastfeeding, and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the United States. Pediatrics. 2003;112 :1196 –1205

[1] World Health Organization. HIV and Infant Feeding: A Guide for Health Care Managers and Supervisors. Publication Nos. WHO/FRH/NUT/98.2, UNAIDS/98.4, UNICEF/PD/NUT/(J)98.2. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1998

[1] Kourtis AP, Buteera S, Ibegbu C, Belec L, Duerr A. Breast milk and HIV-1: vector of transmission or vehicle of protection? Lancet Infect Dis. 2003;3 :786 –793

[1]Coutsoudis A, Pillay K, Spooner E, Kuhn L, Coovadia HM. Influence of infant-feeding patterns on early mother-to-child transmission of HIV-I in Durban, South Africa: a prospective cohort study. South African Vitamin A Study Group. Lancet. 1999;354 :471 –476

[1] Coutsoudis A, Rollins N. Breast-feeding and HIV transmission: the jury is still out. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;36 :434 –442

[1] Lawrence RA, Lawrence RM. Appendix E. Precautions and breastfeeding recommendations for selected maternal infections. In: Breastfeeding: A Guide for the Medical Profession. 5th ed. St Louis, MO: Mosby Inc; 1999:868 –885

[1] Berlin CM Jr, LaKind JS, Sonawane BR, et al. Conclusions, research needs, and recommendations of the expert panel: Technical Workshop on Human Milk Surveillance and Research for Environmental Chemicals in the United States. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2002;65 :1929 –1935

[1]Ribas-Fito N, Cardo E, Sala M, et al. Breastfeeding, exposure to organochlorine compounds, and neurodevelopment in infants. Pediatrics. 2003;111(5) . Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/111/5/e580  

[1] Hamprecht K, Maschmann J, Vochem M, Dietz K, Speer CP, Jahn G. Epidemiology of transmission of cytomegalovirus from mother to preterm infant by breastfeeding. Lancet. 2001;357 :513 –518

[1] Yasuda A, Kimura H, Hayakawa M, et al. Evaluation of cytomegalovirus infections transmitted via breast milk in preterm infants with a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay. Pediatrics. 2003;111 :1333 –1336

[1] Friis H, Andersen HK. Rate of inactivation of cytomegalovirus in raw banked milk during storage at –20 degrees C and pasteurisation. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1982;285 :1604 –1605

[1] Anderson PO. Alcohol and breastfeeding. J Hum Lact. 1995;11 :321–323

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia. Management of hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn infant 35 or more weeks of gestation. Pediatrics. 2004;114 :297–316

[1] Ryan AS, Wenjun Z, Acosta A. Breastfeeding continues to increase into the new millennium. Pediatrics. 2002;110 :1103 –1109

[1] Polhamus B, Dalenius K, Thompson D, et al. Pediatric Nutrition Surveillance 2001 Report. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2003

[1] American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Breastfeeding: maternal and infant aspects. ACOG Educational Bulletin Number 258. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; 2000

[1] American Academy of Family Physicians. AAFP Policy Statement on Breastfeeding. Leawood, KS: American Academy of Family Physicians; 2001

[1] Fifty-Fourth World Health Assembly. Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding. The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2001

[1] United Nations Children's Fund. Breastfeeding: Foundation for a Healthy Future. New York, NY: United Nations Children's Fund; 1999

[1] Institute of Medicine, Committee on Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Lactation. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1991:24–25, 161–171, 197–200

[1] The Ross Mothers Survey. Breastfeeding Trends Through 2002. Abbott Park, IL: Ross Products Division, Abbot Laboratories; 2002

[1] World Health Organization and United Nations Children's Fund. Protecting, Promoting and Supporting Breast-Feeding: The Special Role of Maternity Services. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1989:13–18

[1] Powers NG, Naylor AJ, Wester RA. Hospital policies: crucial to breastfeeding success. Semin Perinatol. 1994;18 :517 –524

[1] Freed GL, Clark SJ, Sorenson J, Lohr JA, Cefalo R, Curtis P. National assessment of physicians' breast-feeding knowledge, attitudes, training, and experience. JAMA. 1995;273 :472 –476

[1] Braveman P, Egerter S, Pearl M, Marchi K, Miller C. Problems associated with early discharge of newborn infants. Pediatrics. 1995;96 :716 –726

[1] Williams LR, Cooper MK. Nurse-managed postpartum home care. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 1993;22 :25 –31

[1] Gielen AC, Faden RR, O'Campo P, Brown CH, Paige DM. Maternal employment during the early postpartum period: effects on initiation and continuation of breast-feeding. Pediatrics. 1991;87 :298 –305

[1] Ryan AS, Martinez GA. Breast-feeding and the working mother: a profile. Pediatrics. 1989;83 :524 –531

[1] Frederick IB, Auerback KG. Maternal-infant separation and breast-feeding. The return to work or school. J Reprod Med. 1985;30 :523 –526

[1] Spisak S, Gross SS. Second Followup Report: The Surgeon General's Workshop on Breastfeeding and Human Lactation. Washington, DC: National Center for Education in Maternal and Child Health; 1991

[1] World Health Assembly. International Code of Marketing of Breast-Milk Substitutes. Resolution of the 34th World Health Assembly. No. 34.22, Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1981

[1] Howard CR, Howard FM, Weitzman ML. Infant formula distribution and advertising in pregnancy: a hospital survey. Birth. 1994;21 :14 –19

[1] Howard FM, Howard CR, Weitzman M. The physician as advertiser: the unintentional discouragement of breast-feeding. Obstet Gynecol. 1993;81 :1048 –1051

[1] Freed GL, Jones TM, Fraley JK. Attitudes and education of pediatric house staff concerning breast-feeding. South Med J. 1992;85 :483 –485

[1] Williams EL, Hammer LD. Breastfeeding attitudes and knowledge of pediatricians-in-training. Am J Prev Med. 1995;11 :26 –33

[1] Gartner LM. Introduction. Breastfeeding in the hospital. Semin Perinatol. 1994;18 :475 

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition. Breastfeeding. In: Kleinman RE, ed. Pediatric Nutrition Handbook. 5th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2004:55 –85

[1] American Dietetic Association. Position of the American Dietetic Association: breaking the barriers to breastfeeding. J Am Diet Assoc. 2001;101 :1213 –1220

[1] Schanler RJ, Hurst NM. Human milk for the hospitalized preterm infant. Semin Perinatol. 1994;18 :476 –484

[1] Lemons P, Stuart M, Lemons JA. Breast-feeding the premature infant. Clin Perinatol. 1986;13 :111 –122 

[1] Kron RE, Stein M, Goddard KE. Newborn sucking behavior affected by obstetric sedation. Pediatrics. 1966;37 :1012 –1016

[1] Ransjo-Arvidson AB, Matthiesen AS, Lilja G, Nissen E, Widstrom AM, Uvnas-Moberg K. Maternal analgesia during labor disturbs newborn behavior: effects on breastfeeding, temperature, and crying. Birth. 2001;28 :5 –12

[1] Widstrom A-M, Thingstrom-Paulsson J. The position of the tongue during rooting reflexes elicited in newborn infants before the first suckle. Acta Paediatr. 1993;82 :281 –283

[1] Wolf L, Glass RP. Feeding and Swallowing Disorders in Infancy: Assessment and Management. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment, Inc; 1992

[1] Righard L, Alade MO. Effect of delivery room routine on success of first breast-feed. Lancet. 1990;336 :1105 –1107

[1] Wiberg B, Humble K, de Chateau P. Long-term effect on mother-infant behavior of extra contact during the first hour post partum. V. Follow-up at three years. Scand J Soc Med. 1989;17 :181 –191

[1] Mikiel-Kostyra K, Mazur J, Boltruszko I. Effect of early skin-to-skin contact after delivery on duration of breastfeeding: a prospective cohort study. Acta Paediatr. 2002;91 :1301 –1306

[1] Christensson K, Siles C, Moreno L, et al. Temperature, metabolic adaptation and crying in healthy, full-term newborns cared for skin-to-skin or in a cot. Acta Paediatr. 1992;81 :488 –493

[1] Van Den Bosch CA, Bullough CH. Effect of early suckling on term neonates' core body temperature. Ann Trop Paediatr. 1990;10 :347 –353

[1] Sosa R, Kennell JH, Klaus M, Urrutia JJ. The effect of early mother-infant contact on breast feeding, infection and growth. In: Lloyd JL, ed. Breast-feeding and the Mother. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier; 1976:179 –193

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Care of the neonate. In: Gilstrap LC, Oh W, eds. Guidelines for Perinatal Care. 5th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2002:222

[1] Shrago L. Glucose water supplementation of the breastfed infant during the first three days of life. J Hum Lact. 1987;3 :82 –86

[1] Goldberg NM, Adams E. Supplementary water for breast-fed babies in a hot and dry climate—not really a necessity. Arch Dis Child. 1983;58 :73 –74

[1] Eidelman AI. Hypoglycemia in the breastfed neonate. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001;48 :377 –387

[1] Howard CR, Howard FM, Lamphear B, de Blieck EA, Eberly S, Lawrence RA. The effects of early pacifier use on breastfeeding duration. Pediatrics. 1999;103(3) . Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/103/3/e33

[1] Howard CR, Howard FM, Lanphear B, et al. Randomized clinical trial of pacifier use and bottle-feeding or cupfeeding and their effect on breastfeeding. Pediatrics. 2003;111 :511 –518

[1] Schubiger G, Schwarz U, Tonz O. UNICEF/WHO Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative: does the use of bottles and pacifiers in the neonatal nursery prevent successful breastfeeding? Neonatal Study Group. Eur J Pediatr. 1997;156 :874 –877

[1] Kramer MS, Barr RG, Dagenais S, et al. Pacifier use, early weaning, and cry/fuss behavior: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2001;286 :322 –326

[1] Gunther M. Instinct and the nursing couple. Lancet. 1955;1 :575 –578

[1] Klaus MH. The frequency of suckling. A neglected but essential ingredient of breast-feeding. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 1987;14 :623 –633

[1]Procianoy RS, Fernandes-Filho PH, Lazaro L, Sartori NC, Drebes S. The influence of rooming-in on breastfeeding. J Trop Pediatr. 1983;29 :112 –114

[1] Anderson GC. Risk in mother-infant separation postbirth. Image J Nurs Sch. 1989;21 :196 –199

[1] Riordan J, Bibb D, Miller M, Rawlins T. Predicting breastfeeding duration using the LATCH breastfeeding assessment tool. J Hum Lact. 2001;17 :20 –23

[1] Hall RT, Mercer AM, Teasley SL, et al. A breast-feeding assessment score to evaluate the risk for cessation of breast-feeding by 7 to 10 days of age. J Pediatr. 2002;141 :659 –664

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Practice and Ambulatory Medicine. Recommendations for preventive pediatric health care. Pediatrics. 2000;105 :645 –646

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Hospital stay for healthy term newborns. Pediatrics. 1995;96 :788 –790

[1] Ahn CH, MacLean WC Jr. Growth of the exclusively breast-fed infant. Am J Clin Nutr. 1980;33 :183 –192

[1] Brown KH, Dewey KG, Allen LH. Complementary Feeding of Young Children in Developing Countries: A Review of Current Scientific Knowledge. Publication No. WHO/NUT/98.1. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1998

[1] Heinig MJ, Nommsen LA, Peerson JM, Lonnerdal B, Dewey KG. Intake and growth of breast-fed and formula-fed infants in relation to the timing of introduction of complementary foods: the DARLING study. Davis Area Research on Lactation, Infant Nutrition, and Growth. Acta Paediatr. 1993;82 :999 –1006

[1] Kramer MS, Kakuma R. The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding. A Systematic Review. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2002

[1] Chantry CJ, Howard CR, Auinger P. Breastfeeding fully for 6 months vs. 4 months decreases risk of respiratory tract infection [abstract 1114]. Pediatr Res. 2002;51 :191A

[1] Dewey KG, Cohen RJ, Brown KH, Rivera LL. Effects of exclusive breastfeeding for four versus six months on maternal nutritional status and infant motor development: results of two randomized trials in Honduras. J Nutr. 2001;131 :262 –267

[1] Butte NF, Lopez-Alarcon MG, Garza C. Nutrient Adequacy of Exclusive Breastfeeding for the Term Infant During the First Six Months of Life. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2002

[1] Sugarman M, Kendall-Tackett KA. Weaning ages in a sample of American women who practice extended breastfeeding. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1995;34 :642 –647 

[1] Dallman PR. Progress in the prevention of iron deficiency in infants. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl. 1990;365 :28 –37

[1] Domellof M, Lonnerdal B, Abrams SA, Hernell O. Iron absorption in breast-fed infants: effects of age, iron status, iron supplements, and complementary foods. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76 :198 –204

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Controversies concerning vitamin K and the newborn. Pediatrics. 2003;112 :191 –192

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition. Nutritional needs of the preterm infant. In: Kleinman RE, ed. Pediatric Nutrition Handbook. 5th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2004:23 –54

[1] Pisacane A, De Vizia B, Valiante A, et al. Iron status in breast-fed infants. J Pediatr. 1995;127 :429 –431

[1] Griffin IJ, Abrams SA. Iron and breastfeeding. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001;48 :401 –413

[1] Dewey KG, Cohen RJ, Rivera LL, Brown KH. Effects of age of introduction of complementary foods on iron status of breastfed infants in Honduras. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998;67 :878 –884

[1] Naylor AJ, Morrow AL. Developmental Readiness of Normal Full Term Infants to Progress From Exclusive Breastfeeding to the Introduction of Complementary Foods: Reviews of the Relevant Literature Concerning Infant Immunologic, Gastrointestinal, Oral Motor and Maternal Reproductive and Lactational Development. Washington, DC: Wellstart International and the LINKAGES Project/Academy of Educational Development; 2001

[1] Cohen RJ, Brown KH, Canahuati J, Rivera LL, Dewey KG. Determinants of growth from birth to 12 months among breast-fed Honduran infants in relation to age of introduction of complementary foods. Pediatrics. 1995;96 :504 –510

[1] Ashraf RN, Jalil F, Aperia A, Lindblad BS. Additional water is not needed for healthy breast-fed babies in a hot climate. Acta Paediatr. 1993;82 :1007 –1011

[1] Huffman SL, Ford K, Allen H, Streble P. Nutrition and fertility in Bangladesh: breastfeeding and post partum amenorrhoea. Popul Stud (Camb). 1987;41 :447 –462

[1] Dettwyler KA. A time to wean: the hominid blueprint for the natural age of weaning in modern human populations. In: Stuart-Macadam P, Dettwyler KA, eds. Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter; 1995:39 –73

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition. Iron fortification of infant formulas. Pediatrics. 1999;104 :119 –123

[1] American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Controversies concerning vitamin K and the newborn. Pediatrics. 2003;112 :191 –192

[1] Hansen KN, Ebbesen F. Neonatal vitamin K prophylaxis in Denmark: three years' experience with oral administration during the first three months of life compared with one oral administration at birth. Acta Paediatr. 1996;85 :1137 –1139

[1] Gartner LM, Greer FR; American Academy of Pediatrics, Section on Breastfeeding and Committee on Nutrition. Prevention of rickets and vitamin D deficiency: new guidelines for vitamin D intake. Pediatrics. 2003;111 :908 –910

[1] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for using fluoride to prevent and control dental caries in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2001;50 (RR-14):1 –42

[1] Blair PS, Fleming PJ, Smith IJ, et al. Babies sleeping with parents: case-control study of factors influencing the risk of the sudden infant death syndrome. BMJ. 1999;319 :1457 –1462

[1] Charpak N, Ruiz-Pelaez JG, Figueroa de C Z, Charpak Y. Kangaroo mother versus traditional care for newborn infants 2000 grams: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 1997;100 :682 –688

[1] Hurst N, Valentine CJ, Renfro L, Burns P, Ferlic L. Skin-to-skin holding in the neonatal intensive care influences maternal milk volume. J Perinatol. 1997;17 :213 –217

[1] Hughes V. Guidelines for the establishment and operation of a human milk bank. J Hum Lact. 1990;6 :185 –186

[1] Human Milk Banking Association of North America. Guidelines for Establishment and Operation of a Donor Human Milk Bank. Raleigh, NC: Human Milk Banking Association of North America Inc; 2003

[1] Arnold LD. Clinical uses of donor milk. J Hum Lact. 1990;6 :132 –133 

[1] Kaplan M, Hammerman C. Severe neonatal hyperbilirubinemia: a potential complication of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. Clin Perinatol. 1998;25 :575 –590, viii

[1] Kaplan M, Vreman HJ, Hammerman C, Schimmel MS, Abrahamov A, Stevenson DK. Favism by proxy in nursing glucose-6-dehydrogenase-deficient neonates. J Perinatol. 1998;18 :477 –479

[1] Gerk PM, Kuhn RJ, Desai NS, McNamara PJ. Active transport of nitrofurantoin into human milk. Pharmacotherapy. 2001;21 :669 –675

[1] American Ac